tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-18992854665392835102024-03-23T03:17:53.245-07:00THE EUROPEAN HISTORYUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger120125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-79983451352887904892024-03-14T01:19:00.000-07:002024-03-14T01:19:35.632-07:00The Evolution of Coffee Culture in Europe: A Historical JourneyThe arrival of coffee in Europe marked a transformative moment in history, shaping not only social interactions but also economic landscapes. Leonhart Rauwolf, a distinguished doctor and botanist from Augsburg, offered one of the earliest glimpses of this exotic beverage in his 1582 travel account, likening its hue to that of ink, a descriptor that would intrigue European imaginations for centuries to come.<br /><br />Yet, it was Prospero Alpini who laid the groundwork for a scientific understanding of coffee in 1591. His meticulous descriptions paved the way for further exploration and cultivation of the plant. The Dutch, pioneering in their spirit of trade and exploration, were the first to bring coffee to European shores. In 1650, Oxford witnessed the inauguration of its first coffeehouse, a venture spearheaded by Jacob, a Turkish Jew. This establishment soon became a hub of intellectual exchange, setting a precedent for similar venues across the continent.<br /><br />Venice, known for its spirit of innovation, followed suit in the early 1640s with its own coffeehouse, quickly becoming a gathering place for the learned and the curious alike. France joined the caffeinated revolution in 1671, when an Armenian entrepreneur named Pascal established the first coffeehouse in Paris. Despite initial challenges, coffee culture gained momentum, eventually spreading to London and beyond.<br /><br />By 1843, Europe and its American colonies were teeming with thousands of coffeehouses, each fostering a unique blend of conversation and camaraderie. The Brazilian coffee industry emerged as a powerhouse in 1727, propelled by seedlings clandestinely transported from Paris. However, the consumption of coffee remained largely confined to the elite classes during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, owing to its premium price.<br /><br />Nevertheless, as coffee became more accessible and affordable over time, it transcended social barriers, permeating into the fabric of European society. The eighteenth century witnessed a democratization of coffee consumption, with cafes and coffeehouses serving as egalitarian spaces for discourse and dissent.<br /><br />In conclusion, the introduction of coffee to Europe heralded a new era of cultural exchange and enlightenment. From its humble beginnings in the pages of travelogues to its proliferation across urban landscapes, coffee became a symbol of progress and connectivity, forever altering the course of European history.<br /><i>The Evolution of Coffee Culture in Europe: A Historical Journey<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAF9MkEJY0pWw1XSNt58TfHddXxCA4A2-iDBL61PYA4swtcMdXZHnbSlrUNF_z4n85OfdBpMbnV4CieLmyzqgnq7qKRGvw82h6diD65vq-yDgKzhW9yx14cMabUqTkYRTX2BiCq3pPKf4nIJsWiVk2fWdho71ay3ujAsjfhh0sL6kktiEk2bndIFKxjRY/s844/Screenshot%202024-03-14%20161731.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="844" data-original-width="794" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAF9MkEJY0pWw1XSNt58TfHddXxCA4A2-iDBL61PYA4swtcMdXZHnbSlrUNF_z4n85OfdBpMbnV4CieLmyzqgnq7qKRGvw82h6diD65vq-yDgKzhW9yx14cMabUqTkYRTX2BiCq3pPKf4nIJsWiVk2fWdho71ay3ujAsjfhh0sL6kktiEk2bndIFKxjRY/s320/Screenshot%202024-03-14%20161731.png" width="301" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-31963296552193418532024-03-02T01:18:00.000-08:002024-03-02T01:18:40.056-08:00From Raiders to Rulers: The Normans' EvolutionThe Normans, celebrated for their conquest of England in 1066, originated in Normandy, Northern France. Their ascent to prominence can be traced back to their Norse lineage, as they were originally pagan warriors from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. Rising as formidable seafaring warriors, they conducted plundering raids along European coastal settlements during the 8th century.<br /><br />As the 9th century progressed, their raids escalated along the northern and western coasts of France. Initially focused on pillage, these raids evolved into more structured ventures. Norse war bands extended their reach inland, establishing semi-permanent settlements that assimilated local French customs, such as intermarriage and property acquisition.<br /><br />The pivotal moment arrived in the early 11th century when King Charles II of France struck a pact with the Normans. In exchange for land, known as Normandy, the Normans were charged with defending France against further Viking invasions. This agreement cemented their presence in the region and heralded their transition from raiders to rulers.<br /><br />Over time, the Normans integrated into medieval European society, abandoning their pagan beliefs in favor of Christianity. They embraced conventional Christian norms and played a significant role in shaping the cultural and political landscape of the era.<br /><br />Normandy, the land granted to them by King Charles II, became synonymous with the Normans themselves, initially known as Northmannia, later shortened to Normandy. This region served as the heart of Norman authority and witnessed their remarkable metamorphosis from plundering pirates to esteemed figures in medieval history.<br /><br />In summary, the saga of the Normans embodies a remarkable narrative of adaptation and assimilation, marking a crucial chapter in European history.<br /><i>From Raiders to Rulers: The Normans' Evolution<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsX-PMR9mnOTidmNk8SqrlNHvPEYB3q29XiogjYdTUEZ-P3sx54dBm8vh8BuI6UwC6qs_IARUBwj_lZHzoUGNlx8YnSP54abCTsHWEgVU5LdaZiVFb6ugxKVdNsMST2zgsfggBOX7P5UY/s450/Screenshot+2024-03-02+171407.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="435" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsX-PMR9mnOTidmNk8SqrlNHvPEYB3q29XiogjYdTUEZ-P3sx54dBm8vh8BuI6UwC6qs_IARUBwj_lZHzoUGNlx8YnSP54abCTsHWEgVU5LdaZiVFb6ugxKVdNsMST2zgsfggBOX7P5UY/s320/Screenshot+2024-03-02+171407.png" width="309" /></a></div><br /></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-31007180969625696572024-02-13T07:24:00.000-08:002024-02-13T07:24:28.123-08:00Danes: Rich History, CultureThe Danes, as an ethnic group and nationality indigenous to Denmark, possess a profound historical significance deeply interwoven with the country's essence. Technically, the term "Dane" primarily refers to the Vikings originating from Denmark, distinct from their Norwegian counterparts known as "Norse." These Vikings played a pivotal role in establishing what eventually developed into the Kingdom of Denmark, with the name of their realm, believed to signify "Danish March," reflecting the southern border region known as the Danevirke.<br /><br />Defined as Nordic Scandinavians, Danes often exhibit characteristic features like blond hair, blue eyes, and towering stature, although traces of German ancestry are observable in southern regions. Their lineage can be traced back to the earliest settlers, who, as hunters and fishermen, are thought to have migrated from Southern and Eastern Europe around 10,000 BC, marking the conclusion of the last Ice Age.<br /><br />The transition to settled agricultural life commenced approximately by 3000 BC, as farms began to emerge on the fertile plains of Denmark. Initially utilizing stone tools, inhabitants swiftly embraced advancements in bronze and iron technology, laying the foundation for a thriving Iron Age society.<br /><br />During this period, Danes forged significant trade connections with the Roman Empire, engaging in the exchange of prized commodities such as animal furs and amber. By 200 AD, the Danish people had adopted the Rune language, evidenced by inscriptions carved in stone throughout the region, serving as enduring remnants of their linguistic heritage.<br /><br />In essence, the Danes symbolize resilience, adaptability, and cultural wealth, embodying a legacy that spans millennia. From their humble origins as nomadic hunters to their ascent as respected seafaring warriors and shrewd traders, the Danes have left an enduring imprint on history, significantly shaping the trajectory of Denmark and influencing the broader narrative of European civilization.<br /><i>Danes: Rich History, Culture<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGm_hQq50R87dl2smaMmnl8uZfHjn8ftB6SGzkRtEJvYrCqyHr2wER4pEjOtIvga-usfqocXnInF1yjzEygoeMHUe7hBYsknHWn1PmVDlLfpEGrNaMBZYcj8ISdqVmRlpkUb84F7q0NZFAF1xKlYRZ1ckYrQtrB3Iy2UBB6OdFlWyjHmAIRqdHy0S3PJc/s886/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="886" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGm_hQq50R87dl2smaMmnl8uZfHjn8ftB6SGzkRtEJvYrCqyHr2wER4pEjOtIvga-usfqocXnInF1yjzEygoeMHUe7hBYsknHWn1PmVDlLfpEGrNaMBZYcj8ISdqVmRlpkUb84F7q0NZFAF1xKlYRZ1ckYrQtrB3Iy2UBB6OdFlWyjHmAIRqdHy0S3PJc/w473-h179/1.jpg" width="473" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-68014578541955010112024-01-28T07:21:00.000-08:002024-01-28T07:21:22.989-08:00Welsh Language EvolutionThe Welsh people, known as "Cymraeg" in their own language, have a rich linguistic history. The term 'Welsh' itself has roots in the Anglo-Saxon term 'Waelas,' which originally meant 'foreigners' or 'strangers.' This linguistic distinction reflects historical dynamics and the cultural identity of the Welsh.<br /><br />The Welsh language, like many others in Europe and Asia, belongs to the vast Indo-European language family. Indo-European, spoken around 6,000 years ago, possibly in the steppe region of southern Russia or Anatolia, served as the ancestral language for a diverse set of languages across continents. The speakers of Indo-European migrated both eastward and westward, reaching the Danube valley by 3,500 BC and India by 2,000 BC.<br /><br />Celtic influence played a significant role in shaping the linguistic landscape of Britain. The Celts, specifically the Aryans, were among the first settlers, arriving in Britain in two waves around 600 B.C. The Goidelic Celts or Gaels established themselves in Ireland and the Scottish highlands, while the Brythonic Celts or Britons settled in England, Wales, and the Scottish Lowlands. The name 'Britain' itself is rooted in the Brythonic Celts, and the Welsh language is intricately connected to their linguistic heritage.<br /><br />The evolution of the Welsh language gained momentum due to the increasing differentiation in dialects within the Brythonic language. This divergence was accentuated following the withdrawal of the Roman administration from Britain and the subsequent migration of Germanic speakers to the region in the fifth century. The mid-sixth century is traditionally recognized as the period when Welsh emerged as a distinct language, coinciding with the displacement of Brythonic speakers from much of what is now England.<br /><br />In 1542, Henry VIII's declaration of the incorporation of Wales within England marked a crucial turning point. The 'Acts of Union' that followed dismissed the Welsh language, as English became the sole officially recognized language in Wales. This policy caused significant resentment among the Welsh population, reflecting a historical struggle for linguistic and cultural autonomy.<br /><br />In contemporary times, the Welsh language has experienced a revival, with efforts to promote and preserve it. Bilingualism is actively encouraged in education, and there are initiatives to maintain the language's presence in various aspects of Welsh society. This linguistic journey reflects not only the historical evolution of the Welsh language but also the resilience of a people determined to preserve their unique cultural identity.<br /><i>Welsh Language Evolution<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7qPuVzHsi99Uw_AjZHM0m6N7g7NpJ2mhdNfroDz7fjo6_8azqOhSrHjZkafhC8HItLpvPSxlUSl61J4Gwge4LXZtMmBA9gbH4AsQ0GG_W9Q-IdZ8kx5cnbLaeTMpfYx5oMQQelJX1F5AX4VN5ODpV7l9dH2IZCqMmiIUNacrw51fLltWT9pLbTrlcRQE/s985/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="890" data-original-width="985" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7qPuVzHsi99Uw_AjZHM0m6N7g7NpJ2mhdNfroDz7fjo6_8azqOhSrHjZkafhC8HItLpvPSxlUSl61J4Gwge4LXZtMmBA9gbH4AsQ0GG_W9Q-IdZ8kx5cnbLaeTMpfYx5oMQQelJX1F5AX4VN5ODpV7l9dH2IZCqMmiIUNacrw51fLltWT9pLbTrlcRQE/w400-h361/1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-81581108697338952442024-01-06T08:19:00.000-08:002024-01-06T08:19:33.859-08:00Chocolate Evolution in FranceThe earliest signs of domesticated cocoa were discovered in the containers and pots of the Mayo-Chinchipe people in the upper Amazon region of Ecuador.<br /><br />In 1615, the momentum for introducing chocolate to France was driven by the efforts of Anna of Austria, a Spanish princess who brought chocolate drinks to the French court upon marrying King Louis XIII. Anna even included her maid Molina in the process of preparing the queen's cocoa drink.<br /><br />A century later, Louis XV developed a notable fondness for chocolate, occasionally crafting his own hot chocolate in the kitchens of his Private Apartments. His mistresses, including Mme Du Barry, also valued the exotic beverage for its aphrodisiac qualities. Concurrently, the invention of the first chocolate-making machines led to the establishment of specialized workshops in Paris.<br /><br />Chocolate transformed into a symbol of status and a fashionable beverage among the Parisian aristocracy, subsequently spreading to the upper echelons of European society. Valued for its fortifying, aphrodisiac, and energizing attributes, hot chocolate gained popularity over the centuries, especially during the Industrial Revolution.<br /><br />Despite its ascent to prominence, not everyone enjoyed the flavor of chocolate. In fact, one pope declared that it could be consumed during fasting periods due to its disagreeable taste.<br /><i>Chocolate Evolution in France<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2K8y__0XSoNlhPTJk3RyKl9xq4sXVCi5y1TFgQw2WMdSaMZrucbXuvlnj0tIFtBsy6QHYaDRRxLqqZ5V0Iuqzs9X56bVl_f886yFOADAeRLg75L2paAZoS4MVLafEtzVOFmZiKBJOqJI-7QFXPv2_xiZi4RMnhDH8bKPdJDmlbEPfBz_Wz8Su5peZMdU/s1335/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="869" data-original-width="1335" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2K8y__0XSoNlhPTJk3RyKl9xq4sXVCi5y1TFgQw2WMdSaMZrucbXuvlnj0tIFtBsy6QHYaDRRxLqqZ5V0Iuqzs9X56bVl_f886yFOADAeRLg75L2paAZoS4MVLafEtzVOFmZiKBJOqJI-7QFXPv2_xiZi4RMnhDH8bKPdJDmlbEPfBz_Wz8Su5peZMdU/w435-h283/1.jpg" width="435" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-25442614903043460022023-10-05T18:45:00.000-07:002023-10-05T18:45:00.134-07:00History of Belgian chocolateBelgium is associated with high-quality chocolate products such as pralines and truffles, with brand names such as Godiva, Neuhaus and Leonidas recognized globally. <br /><br />The history of Belgian chocolate reaches back to the 17th century, when Spanish explorers brought cocoa beans from South America. The Spanish nobility, who then ruled Belgium, enjoyed cocoa as a luxury drink. However, chocolate did not gain popularity with the general public until the second half of the 19th century, when Belgian King Leopold II colonized the Congo. <br /><br />The first signs of chocolate trading in Belgium in 1635 in Ghent when the abbot of Baudeloo Abbey bought chocolate. Chocolate making was then mostly a sideline of pharmacists who sold it as a tonic. <br /><br />While exports grew significantly between 1900 and 1930, Belgium was still importing more chocolate than it exported for much of this period. It was only since the 1960s that Belgian exports dominated imports. However, the success has grown rapidly in recent decades. <br /><br />In 1840, Belgian chocolate maker Berwaerts sold the first pressed chocolate tablets, pastilles and figurines. It was around this time that several chocolate makers were founded that grew into large companies. <br /><br />In 1857, Jean Neuhaus opened a pharmacy in Brussels, Belgium, where, among more traditional remedies, he sold bars of bitter chocolate. Eventually, the bars became so popular that Neuhaus focused his efforts on chocolate making. In 1912, Neuhaus’ grandson, Jean II, invented the now-famous Belgian praline by filling hard chocolate shells with soft cream or nut pastes. <br /><br />In 1915, Louise Agostini, wife of Jean Neuhaus Jr, developed the first ‘ballotin’, a box in which pralines were packed. <br /><br />The 20th century would mark the beginning of Belgium's status as a nation of elite innovators and manufacturers in the chocolate world. <br /><br />Another important development was the introduction of the Belgian chocolate bar “batton” by Kwatta in 1920. Reducing the size of chocolate bars to 30g and 45g and making them into tablet shape further contributed to making chocolate an affordable snack. Chocolate spread was first sold by Cote d'Or in 1952. This delicious innovation rapidly gained popularity throughout the world between 1952 and 1958, as Cote d'Or featured this product as it's latest and greatest addition at the 1958 World's Fair in Brussels. <br /><br />The Belgian chocolate sector boom started with the 1958 World Expo in Brussels. A major campaign was launched by both the government and the industry to boost Belgian chocolate worldwide. <br /><br />Today, the Neuhaus company continues to manufacture Belgian pralines (known as bonbons elsewhere in the world), joined by other large manufacturers such as Godiva, Leonidas, and Guylian. <br /><b><span style="color: #2b00fe;">History of Belgian chocolate</span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-22659819631155981432023-09-06T08:55:00.000-07:002023-09-06T08:55:00.132-07:00Christiaan Huygens: the founder of modern mathematical physics Christiaan Huygens Dutch mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, who founded the wave theory of light, discovered the true shape of the rings of Saturn, and made original contributions to the science of dynamics—the study of the action of forces on bodies. <br /><br />Christiaan Huygens was born on 14 April 1629 in den Haag (the Hague), the second child of the poet and statesman Constantijn Huygens and his wife, Suzanna van Baerle. Christiaan’s father was one of the best-known poets and authors of the Netherlands, and Christiaan was taught at home by his father and private tutors. <br /><br />From May 1645 until March 1647 Christiaan studies law and mathematics at the University of Leiden, the oldest university in the Netherlands. He studied classical mathematics as well as the modern methods of Viéte, Descartes, and Fermat. <br /><br />Christiaan took courses from Franz van Schootens, the best-known mathematician in the Netherlands at that time, and a friend of (and prominent exponent of the ideas of) Descartes. <br /><br />In 1651, Huygens was to discover a well-concealed flaw in the vast work of Gregorius van Saint-Vincent on the quadrature of the circle [the surface area under the segment of a circle], meriting this praise from Van Schooten for his work. <br /><br />Huygens at first concentrated on mathematics: determinations of quadratures and cubatures, and algebraic problems inspired by Pappus’ works. In 1651 the <i>Theoremata de quadratura hyperboles, ellipsis et circuli </i>appeared, Huygens was to discover a well-concealed flaw in the vast work of Gregorius van Saint-Vincent on the quadrature of the circle [the surface area under the segment of a circle], meriting this praise from Van Schooten for his work. <br /><br />In 1656 Huygens invented the pendulum clock. In 1664 Thévenot approached Huygens to offer him membership in an academy to be founded in Paris; Colbert proposed giving official status and financial aid to those informal meetings of scholars which had been held in Paris since Mersenne’s time. In 1666 Huygens became one of the founding members of the French Academy of Sciences, which granted him a pension larger than that of any other member and an apartment in its building. <br /><br />Huygens wrote his greatest works - the <i>Horologium Oscillatorium</i> and the <i>Treatise on Light</i> – retired from the public eye in his home in Holland due to ill health. <br /><br />In 1694 Huygens fell ill. He did not recover. He died the following summer in The Hague on 8 July 1695. <br /><b>Christiaan Huygens: the founder of modern mathematical physics </b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-55937542585854210592023-08-15T07:37:00.003-07:002023-08-15T07:37:26.590-07:00Palermo's History and DevelopmentFounded by the Phoenicians in 736 BC, the city of Palermo takes its name from the Greek expression "all harbour." These Phoenician mariners of antiquity were renowned for their seafaring skills and were primarily focused on trade rather than territorial expansion. They concentrated on controlling strategically positioned ports to aid their navigation.<br /><br />Initially acting as a stronghold for the Carthaginians, Palermo eventually came under Roman authority after the Carthaginians' defeat. The city was integrated into the Roman Empire and later became a part of the Byzantine Empire, maintaining this status for over a thousand years.<br /><br />Between 827 and 1071, Palermo was subjected to Arab dominance during the Emirate of Sicily, a period that elevated its status to that of a capital city. This signaled the commencement of a new chapter for Palermo, leading to a rapid transformation into an impressive urban center reminiscent of the grandeur of Cordoba and Cairo. With the city's expansion came the emergence of new districts, including the fortified coastal area known as the Kalsa and the emir's residence.<br /><br />Following the Norman reconquest, Palermo was designated as the capital of the newly established Kingdom of Sicily (1130 to 1816), later merging with the Realm of Naples to form the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, a union that persisted until the Italian unification in 1860.<br /><br />Under the rule of Roger II, Palermo, now the capital of the flourishing Norman realm, experienced a period of great wealth and luxury. It became a central hub for trade between the Eastern and Western worlds, attracting nobles, traders, and adventurers who were captivated by the allure of the prosperous city and its splendid court.<br /><i>Palermo's History and Development<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhveh37x-alrZOasiIGGVvvt9P1VZgjiWiVCMKbrShNx_n67k9FrXIgIkMOf-3so8CTzWJpHsp8g_bQXoChoEw1undApv79IbYXbkGSvYpoJk7Ii1cJp2KHsY4E8MHRwnNmg02loWzS3drVx8h6q0732c-HZIJigVSnriV7n_DY2meBjWbXsWPacyj-_Ck/s1099/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="618" data-original-width="1099" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhveh37x-alrZOasiIGGVvvt9P1VZgjiWiVCMKbrShNx_n67k9FrXIgIkMOf-3so8CTzWJpHsp8g_bQXoChoEw1undApv79IbYXbkGSvYpoJk7Ii1cJp2KHsY4E8MHRwnNmg02loWzS3drVx8h6q0732c-HZIJigVSnriV7n_DY2meBjWbXsWPacyj-_Ck/w447-h252/1.jpg" width="447" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-18427174653954824572023-07-25T06:11:00.004-07:002023-07-25T06:11:43.744-07:00Suwałki Corridor ImportanceThe Suwałki Corridor is a stretch of land, spanning 60 to 100 kilometers, located along the border between Poland and Lithuania. It acts as a vital connection between Belarus and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad. This region has been dubbed NATO's "vulnerable spot" and is considered one of the most dangerous areas in the world.<br /><br />According to Western military strategists, if the Russian president were to escalate the conflict in Ukraine into a direct confrontation with NATO, the Suwałki Corridor would likely be a top priority target.<br /><br />After the Soviet Union's dissolution, the Russian Federation retained Kaliningrad, which ended up surrounded by Lithuania and Poland after both countries became part of NATO. This situation resulted in what is now known as the Suwałki Gap. Moscow attempted to secure a passage through the Polish side of the corridor to gain easier access to its newly separated territory of Kaliningrad. However, these efforts were unsuccessful. As an alternative, Russia negotiated agreements with the EU to ensure the transit of Russian citizens and goods through Lithuania.<br /><br />Since Lithuania and Poland's accession to the EU in 2004, any travel between Kaliningrad and the rest of Russia overland has required crossing the territory of at least one EU state.<br /><br />The Suwałki Corridor holds immense strategic importance for NATO, the EU, and Russia. From the perspective of Western nations, it represents the sole land link to the three former Soviet Baltic republics – Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia – making them potential targets of Putin's actions if tensions escalate further.<br /><br />For Russia, controlling the corridor would establish a land link between the Baltic exclave of Kaliningrad, the main base of Putin's Baltic Fleet, and its close ally, Belarus.<br /><i>Suwałki Corridor Importance</i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEBDfADag9juoLoIienBmgp3eGM86A_hqFs274_JDkDrojtSnOB7K3eD8O1QrJdZO0BLRSB4ryBLu-jngdLBvcRRayAE5WRk_OpyvZyvl4sVbskWXeV1w0QglxgBQWSaohTj2QcJTX6EiNSwQQSg9O4JP0UyjgfTmcNOsuy8bOYGg8qs6fl4wJKFYN_Xo/s448/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="270" data-original-width="448" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEBDfADag9juoLoIienBmgp3eGM86A_hqFs274_JDkDrojtSnOB7K3eD8O1QrJdZO0BLRSB4ryBLu-jngdLBvcRRayAE5WRk_OpyvZyvl4sVbskWXeV1w0QglxgBQWSaohTj2QcJTX6EiNSwQQSg9O4JP0UyjgfTmcNOsuy8bOYGg8qs6fl4wJKFYN_Xo/w423-h255/1.jpg" width="423" /></a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-82069330157513375972023-06-27T07:39:00.006-07:002023-06-27T07:39:55.175-07:00Hanseatic LeagueThe starting point was the densely populated and more developed Westphalia with its key town of Soest, which had already developed into a nationally important trading post for salt, metal goods from the eastern Sauerland and silver from the Harz region before the turn of the millennium. <br /><br />In 1160 a group of German merchants set up at the Baltic a trade transit station in Visby, Gotland Island, to facilitate the ware transportation among coastal towns in the area. <br /><br />By the end of the 11th century, merchants from this region were increasingly drawn to the coast of the North and Baltic Seas to meet the rising demands of urban populations that continued to grow until the end of the 13th century. They traded foods such as herring and grain, as well as commercial products such as wood, flax, tar or wax for salt, which was needed on the coast for preserving fish. <br /><br />Merchants attempting to travel on sea or land regularly came under threat from robbers, pirates, feudal lords, and tribal monarchs. Local rulers across Northern Europe often were bent on confiscating goods or exacting tributes. Merchants who tried to travel alone were fair game. <br /><br />In response, they began to organize convoys or troops—“Hanse” in Middle Low German—on trade routes across the region. <br /><br />Starting in the late 11th century, a brisk east-west trade developed between the Russian city of Novgorod and Westphalia. This trade initially went through the key trading post of Schleswig, which also maintained trading ties with England. <br /><br />The year of 1239 was the actual establishment of the Hanseatic League is usually now attributed to this date-the name being derived from the old German Hansa, a union or confederacy. <br /><br />Northern German mastery of trade in the Baltic Sea was achieved with striking speed and completeness in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. After its capture by Henry III (the Lion) in 1158, Lübeck became the main base for Westphalian and Saxon merchants expanding northward and eastward. <br /><br />Later in 1241, the first agreement was signed between Lübeck and Hamburg to facilitate foreign trade in the North Sea and the Baltic. <br /><br />By the end of the 13th century, similar agreements had been reached with a large number of cities that had decided to join the trade Union. In 1370 the Hanseatic League numbered 77 cities, which forced the then King of Denmark, Valdemar IV, to grant them free navigation between the two seas and exemption from customs duties. This agreement led to the final formation of the Hanseatic League. <br /><br />The League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across seven modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to the Netherlands in the west, and Kraków, Poland, in the south. <br /><br />At the end of the 15th century, new overseas trade routes began to develop with the discovery and colonization of America, which reduced the economic importance of the Baltic and North Sea. This decline was also caused by a number of factors including economic depression, increased power of non-Hanseatic merchants and the nobility which backed them, a depletion of various resources, the plague of the late 14th century CE, and climate change which shortened growing seasons. <br /><br />The Thirty Years' War and the devastation it caused in the German countries was the final blow to degenerate the Hanseatic League, which in 1669 operated only in its metropolises (Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg). In 1669, the last Hanseatic Convention was held in Lu beck, at which attempts were still being made to reorganize the Hanseatic League on the basis of a city alliance. By the 17th century, the league had diminished in numbers and power to be almost inconsequential, and it was dissolved in the 19th century.<br /><b>Hanseatic League<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY_BJ54jhcr15VuFABexeUT5yMPbu1fDa59ahsW_bfBZVxj2-9Dj6JBD5arrCiR5C_uTDD8uojp0YbxlTRildtcKWG0IqCIKARvbkd-sq0HBqJLhn8bWiRMq5Um8dlYcq-H5K-YXtKCdtX3aD8jcA3YcrIJNpxSjMowHo2_S3b2K3iMwspSmaF9ZAggts/s1190/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1190" height="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY_BJ54jhcr15VuFABexeUT5yMPbu1fDa59ahsW_bfBZVxj2-9Dj6JBD5arrCiR5C_uTDD8uojp0YbxlTRildtcKWG0IqCIKARvbkd-sq0HBqJLhn8bWiRMq5Um8dlYcq-H5K-YXtKCdtX3aD8jcA3YcrIJNpxSjMowHo2_S3b2K3iMwspSmaF9ZAggts/w450-h259/1.jpg" width="450" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-37391515743454427702023-05-31T20:51:00.006-07:002023-05-31T20:51:46.048-07:00The siege of LeningradDuring World War II, German forces begin their siege of Leningrad, a major industrial center and the USSR’s second-largest city. The German armies were later joined by Finnish forces (as well as the soldiers of the Division Azul, Spanish volunteers) that advanced against Leningrad down the Karelian Isthmus. <br /><br />The siege of Leningrad is a key episode in the Second World War on Soviet territory. Lasting 900 days between September 1941 and January 1944, the siege of Leningrad claimed the lives of 800,000 of the city’s inhabitants, mainly through cold and hunger. <br /><br />Leningrad, formerly St. Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire, was one of the initial targets of the German invasion of June 1941. By the end of July, German forces had cut the Moscow-Leningrad railway and were penetrating the outer belt of the fortifications around Leningrad. <br /><br />The siege began officially on September 8, 1941. German armies approached Leningrad from the west and south while their Finnish allies approached to the north down the Karelian Isthmus. <br /><br />The people of Leningrad began building antitank fortifications and succeeded in creating a stable defense of the city, but as a result were cut off from all access to vital resources in the Soviet interior, Moscow specifically. B y early November it had been almost completely encircled, with all its vital rail and other supply lines to the Soviet interior cut off. <br /><br />According to official data, some 2.8 million people, including 400,000 children, were trapped in the city at the outset of the Siege. On January 27, 1944, Soviet forces permanently break the Leningrad siege line, ending the almost 900-day German-enforced containment of the city, which cost hundreds of thousands of Russian lives.<br /><b> The siege of Leningrad<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwTSZ9UI3iey_Iit52gYfOBXMbCb9n-2plQeyJl0BVzXOyHhDU_ZNvbdUK1wgUQuc8Q1cM2uEn1s9yBnyZmiuu8AWoUxybUQMPbCDXcA3HhyWuKysQr5TnP8bVXFxnD133GrnQb8MhFzQRugWdVXHWhLo8Dz4Sq1wzcw9IO8hEISmgzwWzEH3B2gon/s891/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="513" data-original-width="891" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwTSZ9UI3iey_Iit52gYfOBXMbCb9n-2plQeyJl0BVzXOyHhDU_ZNvbdUK1wgUQuc8Q1cM2uEn1s9yBnyZmiuu8AWoUxybUQMPbCDXcA3HhyWuKysQr5TnP8bVXFxnD133GrnQb8MhFzQRugWdVXHWhLo8Dz4Sq1wzcw9IO8hEISmgzwWzEH3B2gon/w461-h265/1.jpg" width="461" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-48219510321207619522023-05-02T08:44:00.007-07:002023-05-02T08:44:57.119-07:00Cossack HetmanateIt was Cossack state in the Eastern Ukraine which existed from 1648 through 1782. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was established during the mid-17th century after an uprising against the Poles. <br /><br />Cossack Hetmanate was a class state with the Cossacks ruling the other classes of population, through its officers. It was an autonomous institution with its own army, administration, and justice. The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was the Zaporizhian Host or Army of Zaporizhia. <br /><br />The Hetmanate emerged as a result of the Khmelnytsky Uprising, which swept Polish authority from central Ukraine. In 1648. Khmelnytsky, assuming the post of hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, allies with the Crimean Tatars and leads a Cossack revolt, igniting a general Ukrainian insurrection. The Cossacks defeat the armies of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Cossack Hetmanate was created. <br /><br />The Cossack Hetmanate is abolished in 1783. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate managed to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During the latter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic territory was absorbed by the Russian Empire.<br /><b>Cossack Hetmanate<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiltr73ZgJE28wZd_psI2gWgmcVLBkAUmFu2o78vGM5sTJ56mGU1iBDh9rHawwkq3S5mIy_Dhf5z7q-osUXvS2Ga9KRx05mPRHnfE-zGGPmiVlGgt2ptrKwxWKBvyhMTKp3Fbr7i9lNxPZRGwJ_zv2ixFyXvPHsz9BFfcWhkYS075Qo1M4y7gTkhSRm/s920/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="920" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiltr73ZgJE28wZd_psI2gWgmcVLBkAUmFu2o78vGM5sTJ56mGU1iBDh9rHawwkq3S5mIy_Dhf5z7q-osUXvS2Ga9KRx05mPRHnfE-zGGPmiVlGgt2ptrKwxWKBvyhMTKp3Fbr7i9lNxPZRGwJ_zv2ixFyXvPHsz9BFfcWhkYS075Qo1M4y7gTkhSRm/w427-h356/1.jpg" width="427" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-37459765728157936242023-03-24T23:23:00.003-07:002023-03-24T23:23:12.198-07:00Hellenic period and cultureThe Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC until 31 B.C., when Roman troops conquered the last of the territories that the Macedonian king had once ruled. <br /><br />Hellenistic civilization represents the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323BC to about 146BC. Hellenistic civilization was preceded by the Classical Hellenic period, and followed by Roman rule over the areas Greece had earlier dominated – even though much of Greek culture, religion, art and literature still permeated Rome's rule. <br /><br />The word “Hellenistic” comes from the word Hellazein, which means “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” <br /><br />The spread of Hellenistic culture was sparked by the conquests of Alexander the Great. After his ventures of the Persian Empire, Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout southwest Asia and north-east Africa. Alexander had plans to construct new cities, roads, and harbors, and continue expansion (possibly into Arabia), but he died before he got the chance in 323 BC. <br /><br />The ancient writer Herodotus report that initially Greece was the residence of barbarians and at some point, in time first the Dorians separated from the barbarian Pelasgeans and created a separate nation, the Greek. Greek (also called Hellenic) culture blended with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences, a blending which came to be known as Hellenistic culture. <br /><br />Agriculture (throughout the periods) is the dominant area of production furnishing the main income of cities. The “citizen” land owners constitute a small segment of the population as the rest being mostly slaves deprived of any material means. <br /><br />People, like goods, moved fluidly around the Hellenistic kingdoms. Almost everyone in the former Alexandrian empire spoke and read the same language: koine, or “the common tongue,” a kind of colloquial Greek. <br /><br />In the Greek city states by 5th century B.C. and in Rome by 2nd century B.C. slavery became a dominant form. It was the high number of slaves used in all production that permitted a "freedom" and "democracy" to a non-laboring population. <br /><br />The spread of Greek culture throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of cities. Settlements situated on trade routes allowed cultures to mix and spread. Social and cultural changes brought about changes in Greek religious practices. Individualistic feelings contributed to a new fascination with mystery cults, which often promised reward in the form of a better afterlife. New deities were introduced to Greece from areas such as Egypt and Syria, a result of cosmopolitanism and cultural exchange.<br /><b>Hellenic period and culture<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrjwz1Qcz2c3AORRffqqPgOXXVwuUtTbUDHZ9Cxl9wzCinOgUEMXMnCPojfbLS76-jRk3drIDy3eRd0ZmOz-rqUCL70LWm7Z6RxfWESKxCFhtgX8XOOysT7k9Luw5s6YP2d25lmskS2oqCbGlWmJjLZb4otSHaeJEXhzrvB4GSw7f4rpFyndejUgp5/s1211/2023-03-25.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="758" data-original-width="1211" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrjwz1Qcz2c3AORRffqqPgOXXVwuUtTbUDHZ9Cxl9wzCinOgUEMXMnCPojfbLS76-jRk3drIDy3eRd0ZmOz-rqUCL70LWm7Z6RxfWESKxCFhtgX8XOOysT7k9Luw5s6YP2d25lmskS2oqCbGlWmJjLZb4otSHaeJEXhzrvB4GSw7f4rpFyndejUgp5/w432-h270/2023-03-25.png" width="432" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-45895258616201017072023-02-19T21:10:00.005-08:002023-02-19T21:10:51.581-08:00Battle of the Seelow Heights 1945The Seelow Heights is situated around the town of Seelow, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) east of Berlin. During April 1945, the Battle of the Seelow Heights saw some of the heaviest fighting of the Second World War between the German defenders and the Soviet attackers. <br /><br />The Battle of the Seelow Heights was part of the Seelow-Berlin Offensive Operation during 16th April and 2nd May 1945. It was an assault between Soviet soldiers of the 1st Belorussian Front and German 9th Army. The fighting took place on the horseshoe-shaped plateau of the Seelow Heights. <br /><br />At 3:00 AM on April 16, Marshal Georgy Zhukov commenced a massive bombardment of the German positions using artillery and Katyusha rockets. The bulk of this struck the first German defensive line in front of the heights. <br /><br />The German 9th Army under General Theodor Busse was positioned in the Oder Marsh, about 90 km east from Berlin. Russian armored columns pierced the German lines and raced west, leaving follow-on forces to execute mop-up operations. Soviet armor averaged 25 miles a day, and Soviet infantry nearly 18 miles a day. Pockets of Germans fought desperately as they began a general retreat toward the Oder River. <br /><br />Because the German troops seemed to offer little resistance, Zhukov launched an attack which, however, met with little success. The 143 antiaircraft defense searchlights placed in the front lines in order to blind the enemy, caused disorientation among his own troops instead. <br /><br />Things started to go wrong for the Soviets – the debris and smoke from the massive bombardment meant that the glare of the 140-plus searchlights, intended to blind the Germans, was reflected and blinded the attackers, as well as turning them into easy targets, silhouetted against the light. The intensity of German defensive fire took the Soviet troops by surprise. <br /><br />The Soviets sustained over 30,000 killed as well as lost 743 tanks and self-propelled guns. German losses numbered around 12,000 killed. Though a heroic stand, the defeat effectively eliminated the last organized German defenses between the Soviets and Berlin.<br /><b>Battle of the Seelow Heights 1945<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMLY3R5camwLGyMxPKhGVFV9ncFdDk82DaVYdmP296dIQzT6QQ7YNz1MzjlXLmY-2h5NiAWaM2kYbeuSPD51gyc_ns42JJk1M35WXiWheyLZE9ReE8aHAJyCAEh1wG3n2ueriXM7nU2sAZRvf9qahE6c_bYbYP8YDSlrcqiIE3xxqQDXUgDDE_1uPf/s622/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="622" data-original-width="582" height="485" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMLY3R5camwLGyMxPKhGVFV9ncFdDk82DaVYdmP296dIQzT6QQ7YNz1MzjlXLmY-2h5NiAWaM2kYbeuSPD51gyc_ns42JJk1M35WXiWheyLZE9ReE8aHAJyCAEh1wG3n2ueriXM7nU2sAZRvf9qahE6c_bYbYP8YDSlrcqiIE3xxqQDXUgDDE_1uPf/w453-h485/1.jpg" width="453" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-72037827338863319352023-01-16T07:45:00.008-08:002023-01-16T07:45:50.901-08:00City of PilsenPilsen was first recorded in the 10th century, chartered in 1292, and fortified in 1295 by King Wenceslas II. The west Bohemian town of Pilsen was located on a trade route from the German borders to Prague. Since the very beginning, the town became a busy trade center located at the crossroads of two important trade routes. They were linking the Czech lands with German cities Nurembug and Regensburg. <br /><br />The town was built on a chessboard plan and is an example of high-Gothic urbanism. The tower of the Church of St. Bartholomew, the highest in the Czech Republic (103 m), is the dominant feature of the town. <br /><br />Pilsen’s history is closely associated with beer. Pilsen is known primarily for the products of Pilsen brewery – the beer called Pilsen. When the city was founded in 1295, King Wenceslas II gave burghers his permission to brew beer. The privilege to make beer was very profitable financially, its allowed the holder to sell beer in his house.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjumi7Nnuc0LKhf7KlFtzDm0KE39LlBHMLLcZ1AIR5tHRofQYPXs1WmC4plGJY7sMoIXENJJnvjRpg4Pgs1f81AOZWPSBV6CjnahNnVLalPxDfbPLdiL9iaZE3_jxKDh9kRyqrHdoC_tkal_JyA1AO27U_NBN1N68jQ2NdDmyWs6xoYvWLcFN2tkdy6/s703/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="699" data-original-width="703" height="433" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjumi7Nnuc0LKhf7KlFtzDm0KE39LlBHMLLcZ1AIR5tHRofQYPXs1WmC4plGJY7sMoIXENJJnvjRpg4Pgs1f81AOZWPSBV6CjnahNnVLalPxDfbPLdiL9iaZE3_jxKDh9kRyqrHdoC_tkal_JyA1AO27U_NBN1N68jQ2NdDmyWs6xoYvWLcFN2tkdy6/w436-h433/1.jpg" width="436" /></a></div>In the 14th century, Pilsen was the third largest town after Prague and Kutna Hora. It comprised 290 houses on an area of 20 ha. Its population was 3,000 inhabitants. <br /><br />During the 15th century Hussite wars, Pilsen sided with the Catholics, as most of its inhabitants were Catholic. In 1468, the town acquired a printing press; the Troyan Chronicle, the first book published in Bohemia, was printed there. <br /><br />In the mid-16th century, Pilsen flourished, ranking third among the biggest cities in Bohemia. At the end of the 16th century, Emperor Rudolf II took refuge in Pilsen when the plague epidemic hit Prague. <br /><br />Pilsen experienced a tremendous growth in the first half of the 19th century. The City Brewery was founded in 1842 and the Skoda Works in 1859. <br /><br />Pilsen was part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy until 1918, when it was included in newly independent Czechoslovakia. It was taken by German forces in 1939 and became a leading producer of German weapons during World War II. <br /><br />With the population of 167, 000 inhabitants, Pilsen prides itself on being the seat of the University of West Bohemia and Bishopric. The city is the transportation hub and the economic and cultural center of western Bohemia.<br /><b>City of Pilsen<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvwOU6y-kfk0hE0toSTrXNET5u5usg4GSoWneq1ZpiEeQwzbjTgchqSMi3JzY4uS6B6q41d-4MsOcFz1EWZoZ9MaH_RjYZ0IpMvwVL7plrmNNBJ8bFOYwMJ4i-hW38o0YgAPir4CgmtiS52BmT7HvCUBV8GdYxaSicGfsbkr-eCoV9pwQyPjZNpdSN/s938/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="617" data-original-width="938" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvwOU6y-kfk0hE0toSTrXNET5u5usg4GSoWneq1ZpiEeQwzbjTgchqSMi3JzY4uS6B6q41d-4MsOcFz1EWZoZ9MaH_RjYZ0IpMvwVL7plrmNNBJ8bFOYwMJ4i-hW38o0YgAPir4CgmtiS52BmT7HvCUBV8GdYxaSicGfsbkr-eCoV9pwQyPjZNpdSN/w458-h301/2.jpg" width="458" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-80913300873357784562022-12-05T20:31:00.000-08:002022-12-05T20:31:01.292-08:00History of LeningradLeningrad, formerly St. Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire, was one of the initial targets of the German invasion of June 1941. It was the original capital of Russia. Shortly after the communist revolution of 1917, the city was renamed Petrograd in an attempt to remove the czarist links implied by its name. <br /><br />The city was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May 1703 on the site of a captured Swedish fortress, and was named after apostle Saint Peter. Peter the Great moved the royal family and government from Moscow to this city, wanting to create a "window to the west". <br /><br />For two centuries (1712–1918) it was the capital of the Russian Empire. The city is remembered for Revolutions of 1917 and its fierce defense while besieged during World War II. <br /><br />When the world was at war with Germany in 1914, the Imperial Government in Russia changed St Petersburg's name to Petrograd. This was mainly due to the fact that Russia wanted to separate themselves from any German sounding name. <br /><br />The chief architect of the revolution was the leader of the Bolshevik Party, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who changed his name to Vladimir Lenin. <br /><br />Five days after Lenin’s death on January 26, 1924, Petrograd’s name was changed to “Leningrad” to honor the late Marxist leader. <br /><br />After the communist regime in the USSR fell, the city once again took its original name, St. Petersburg, in 1991. <br /><br />Dropping Lenin's name meant abandoning the legacy of the Russian revolutionary leader. Communists fiercely opposed the change, but the Orthodox Church supported the idea.<br /><b>History of Leningrad<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6uq_2pod9dciWDIEYFo2K3ipXNrdg6BBfCqZrNFWCLVs9ofVHtLrr9GQmDzpWpijm9ZyBVVOH-4cxKM-dQ77J2PuCHnzcjoTE7A-579p1APU8cZwSj0eUlACB-gKZzfdeKvjUGb4SxPaQN_XIGU0n67tkZw5mLMw7WmKTfjZkI2oBvHb2IGEDSn-V/s652/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="592" data-original-width="652" height="409" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6uq_2pod9dciWDIEYFo2K3ipXNrdg6BBfCqZrNFWCLVs9ofVHtLrr9GQmDzpWpijm9ZyBVVOH-4cxKM-dQ77J2PuCHnzcjoTE7A-579p1APU8cZwSj0eUlACB-gKZzfdeKvjUGb4SxPaQN_XIGU0n67tkZw5mLMw7WmKTfjZkI2oBvHb2IGEDSn-V/w450-h409/1.jpg" width="450" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Leningrad during World War II</span></b></td></tr></tbody></table></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-10400457643295431202022-11-09T18:24:00.004-08:002022-11-09T18:25:40.440-08:00Hernán CortésHernán Cortés (1485– December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. <br /><br />Cortés was the son of Martín Cortés de Monroy and of Doña Catalina Pizarro Altamarino—names of ancient lineage. Cortés (full name Don Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca) was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés first served as a soldier in an expedition of Cuba led by Diego Velázquez in 1511. <br /><br />He studied in Salamanca for a time but soon grew restless and left Spain in 1504 to explore the New World. In 1511 he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba. There Velázquez was appointed governor, and Cortés clerk to the treasurer. <br /><br />In 1519 he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. <br /><br />His enmity with the governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez resulted in the latter calling back the expedition in the last moment, an order which was ignored by Cortés in an act of disobedience. Cortés traveled to Mexico anyway, setting his sights on overthrowing ruler Montezuma II in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. <br /><br />Cortés arrived with around 500 men, 16 horses, and some cannon. He founded a small settlement that would eventually become the city of Veracruz. Montezuma II's messengers returned to the emperor with the terrifying reports of their encounter with the Spainards: their guns, horses, dogs and their lust for gold. <br /><br />Hernan Cortés and his men landed on the Mexican coast on April of 1519. Montezuma II sent Cortés gifts of gold and chocolate to welcome the Spanish. Although Montezuma II did not trust Cortés, he also was worried that Cortés was the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Aztec mythology said that Quetzalcoatl would come to Earth as a man and Cortés had arrived on Quetzalcoatl's birthday. <br /><br />The Aztecs eventually drove the Spanish from Tenochtitlan, but Cortés returned to defeat the natives and take the city in 1521. Tenochtitlan at the time was one of greatest civilizations on earth. An Aztec city built on a lake with heigh pyramids along with a network of roads and bridges. <br /><br />When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés he fought them and won and used the extra troops as reinforcements. Instead he wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. <br /><br />Cortés continued to seek opportunities to gain wealth and land. He sent more expeditions out into new areas, including what is present-day Honduras. He spent much of his later years seeking recognition for his achievements and support from the Spanish royal court. <br /><br />Cortés died in Spain on December 2, 1547.<br /><b>Hernán Cortés<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiGNBOBEZQPcNKALGiiARuRyzt7Kgnz9-yv5luHEGg4Ot1PWjDssYqUxRVelsy1X4TM1xJUQnVJTQ_NTUkL61_y326l57023ZwbX-pQMWSlRf_mYkPQsHAuKNFRBgenJQqyHpIZMdl2EpJhu3hTkRRbHycM7UTAk32V5HYdGTYDlGFyBCqDuT0yq88/s300/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="245" data-original-width="300" height="359" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiGNBOBEZQPcNKALGiiARuRyzt7Kgnz9-yv5luHEGg4Ot1PWjDssYqUxRVelsy1X4TM1xJUQnVJTQ_NTUkL61_y326l57023ZwbX-pQMWSlRf_mYkPQsHAuKNFRBgenJQqyHpIZMdl2EpJhu3hTkRRbHycM7UTAk32V5HYdGTYDlGFyBCqDuT0yq88/w440-h359/1.jpg" width="440" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-79646416166603641052022-10-01T05:11:00.007-07:002022-10-01T05:11:53.409-07:00The Peace of Westphalia (1648)The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648 in Münster (Germany), marking the ended the Thirty Years' War. The Thirty Years' War, a series of wars fought by European nations for various reasons, ignited in 1618 over an attempt by the king of Bohemia (the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II) to impose Catholicism throughout his domains. Throughout the conflict, the Catholic Hapsburgs fought Protestant princes of Germany who were supported by France, Sweden, and Denmark. <br /><br />The Swedes, the Danes, the Poles, the Russians, the Dutch and the Swiss were all dragged in or dived in. The war was largely fought on German soil and reduced the country to desolation as hordes of mercenaries, left unpaid by their masters, lived off the land. <br /><br />On June 1, 1645, France and Sweden brought forward propositions of peace, which were discussed by the estates of the empire from October 1645 to April 1646. <br /><br />The Peace of Westphalia is the collective name for two peace treaties signed in October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. Diplomatic representatives from 96 different <br /><br />entities were present at the negotiations which met in two cities within 30 miles of each other. <br /><br />The Holy Roman Emperor (Ferdinand III), the Spanish Empire, the kingdoms of France and Sweden, the United Provinces (Netherlands), and their respective allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire participated in these treaties. <br /><br />Under the terms of the peace settlement, several countries received territories or were confirmed in their sovereignty over territories. The territorial clauses all favored Sweden, France, and their allies. <br /><br />As a result of the Treaty of Westphalia, the Netherlands gained independence from Spain. The German principalities secured their autonomy. Sweden gained territory and a payment in cash, Brandenburg and Bavaria made gains too, and France acquired most of Alsace-Lorraine. <br /><br />The power of the Holy Roman Emperor was broken and the German states were again able to determine the religion of their lands.<br /><b>The Peace of Westphalia (1648)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPrCJ14waeg3GuPVbOuP1MIDvg3XOHNYdLBpmuid1lU0oCaQp9OMPTw3zrGkBouoR1fextHNsZH7XqRxBthAXcI2p1akoS0_pTkIQxNiLUWmCd-OTDFY72QMJ050dnRdas3Cry2wRX0uR5eDLCUt4t69KrN3kXjb0-y6gcj83dTJZ28bd8A9pO1BTH/s4025/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1705" data-original-width="4025" height="203" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPrCJ14waeg3GuPVbOuP1MIDvg3XOHNYdLBpmuid1lU0oCaQp9OMPTw3zrGkBouoR1fextHNsZH7XqRxBthAXcI2p1akoS0_pTkIQxNiLUWmCd-OTDFY72QMJ050dnRdas3Cry2wRX0uR5eDLCUt4t69KrN3kXjb0-y6gcj83dTJZ28bd8A9pO1BTH/w478-h203/1.jpg" width="478" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-79450083742390835182022-08-26T07:59:00.004-07:002022-08-26T07:59:52.791-07:00D-Day (Operation Neptune)At the height of Nazi power in 1942, Germany and its allies controlled large swaths of Europe and North Africa, from France and Holland in the west, to Poland and portions of Russia in the east, to Italy and Tunisia in the south. <br /><br />Operation Neptune, the largest amphibious invasion force in history, was the seaborne phase of Operation Overlord. This operation began on June 6, 1944, and ended on June 30, 1944. Allied military leaders believed that a full-scale invasion of Western Europe could spread the German army thin and turn the tide of the war for good. <br /><br />On June 6, 1944, the Allied Expeditionary Force under the supreme command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, USA, invaded Western Europe with the landings made at Normandy, France. The invasion force was divided between Eastern (British) and Western (American) naval forces, the beaches earmarked for invasion included five beaches designated Sword, Gold, Juno, Omaha, and Utah. <br /><br />Hours before daylight, over 1000 bombers dropped their payloads on German coastal defenses to soften them up prior to the arrival of the initial assault troops. Additionally, under the cover of darkness, 18,000 American and British paratroopers attempted to drop behind the Nazis’ beachfront bulwarks and cut off key supply roads, bridges and inland defenses. <br /><br />Shortly after midnight, the American 101st and 82nd airborne divisions parachuted into their prescribed landing zones at the base of the Cotentin peninsula to the west of the invasion area. <br /><br />The U.S. Navy played a vital role in spearheading the assault on Hitler’s Festung Europa (Fortress Europe), serving in a variety of important roles before, during, and after the landings. Her ships began one of history’s most famous days by bombarding German forces on or near the American invasion beaches code-named Omaha and Utah. <br /><br />By June 30th, the Allies had established a firm foothold in Normandy — 850,279 men, 148,803 vehicles and 570,505 tons of supplies had been landed.<br /><b>D-Day (Operation Neptune)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie77Ixc8Eb7cDeiJf-HKUOib5iSGnsuE59ZYL0BONBJpF6pSB29hXRY02xtORwddUM9AlGftljBgFIUFWdQ1AhOObnUb6AzZ7gxV-4-6reMXS_hENawTJkbqB_8U1pkun-ZVA_dLQ6gGCYO5AviXiCntGh2BSvh1LcIEX6XKvXsuHPA5losi1-AOrh/s1432/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="830" data-original-width="1432" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie77Ixc8Eb7cDeiJf-HKUOib5iSGnsuE59ZYL0BONBJpF6pSB29hXRY02xtORwddUM9AlGftljBgFIUFWdQ1AhOObnUb6AzZ7gxV-4-6reMXS_hENawTJkbqB_8U1pkun-ZVA_dLQ6gGCYO5AviXiCntGh2BSvh1LcIEX6XKvXsuHPA5losi1-AOrh/w454-h262/1.jpg" width="454" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-2017681560030535382022-07-28T18:47:00.002-07:002022-07-28T18:47:25.573-07:00Athenian empire (454 – 404 BC)The Athenian Empire arose from naval power acquired to face the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. The Hellenic league, formed to combat the Persians, was clearly headed by Sparta. Sparta presided at meetings and provided both land and sea commanders. <br /><br />The Athenians were interested in trade with the Greek cities still ruled by Persia, and they wanted to liberate their fellow Greeks from Persian rule. <br /><br />At Athens, the Athenians began rebuilding their walls. The Spartans opposed the rebuilding. Themistocles tricked the Spartans by delays until the Athenian walls were rebuilt. Clear lines of power and strategic moves. <br /><br />Sparta and its allies on the Peloponnese peninsula withdrew from the war, leaving Athens as the most influential among those cities continuing the war. Athens created a new league of states – a voluntary association called the Delian League. <br /><br />The Delian league was a new alliance against the Persians, but under Athenian leadership. By 446/5 the Delian League had become the Athenian empire. Peace had been made with Persia, but Athens had firmly retained her hold over the allies. <br /><br />League forces liberated Greek communities from Persian control and dominated the waters of the eastern Mediterranean. Most subjects paid an annual tribute, with Athens using the monies to build and man warships.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG3BueFPmXzuc2fa6XxZhDun9ST8IHrqW024285wYDIIMuuvzjgGwW6w5UJ87XEEqyzRoksktK4ykLRS1WduoZHvK16BBPZylq2iNmIKZAvhFTpaRmLxMSJdxfT69mbXYZGHmB8P3KaA7mG7R-xsD65qlbmdt0ryVOSDXUgLGV9ug_weinMtv1tAHr/s1920/2022-07-29.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="878" data-original-width="1920" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG3BueFPmXzuc2fa6XxZhDun9ST8IHrqW024285wYDIIMuuvzjgGwW6w5UJ87XEEqyzRoksktK4ykLRS1WduoZHvK16BBPZylq2iNmIKZAvhFTpaRmLxMSJdxfT69mbXYZGHmB8P3KaA7mG7R-xsD65qlbmdt0ryVOSDXUgLGV9ug_weinMtv1tAHr/w462-h211/2022-07-29.png" width="462" /></a></div>The Delian league's first action, in 476/5, was to take over Eion, a Persian fortress on the Strymon river. <br /><br />Next the Athenians expelled pirates from Scyrus (near Euboea) and settled it themselves. A few years later, they subdued Carystus, a Euboean city that had medized during the Persian war. Then in 467, Naxos revolted and was subdued. The pattern is clear: attack Persians, take over territory, force a city to remain in the league. <br /><br />Athens arrogated to itself the role of policeman within its alliance. Athens forced back into its alliance a city that had broken its oath to remain in the league. It suppressed petty wars within the league and intervened in disputes within member cities, favoring those who supported democracy. Athens was beginning to be imperial. <br /><br />To further strengthen Athens's grip on its empire, Pericles in 450 BC began a policy of establishing kleruchiai—quasi-colonies that remained tied to Athens and which served as garrisons to maintain control of the League's vast territory. <br /><br />In 437, Amphipolis was founded as an Athenian colony on the Chalcidice. It grew to be an important city, because of the natural resources it could draw on: timber, pitch, metals. The empire was a self-propelling device in terms of economy and military. The fleet was an economic and military tool. <br /><br />Ultimately, fear of Athens’ growing power sparked the Peloponnesian War with Sparta and its allies, a long and costly war of attrition. Athens’ defeat in 404 BC led to the loss of the empire.<br /><b>Athenian empire (454 – 404 BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9LcAiLGCWtfEaWe5_xxc8c0zpU-7Zl4N_czOHZo6vFI4s94fnDfmx-RKXpKw53Z-5dFlMVI-T_wQ-Tc0zQC00fcf24pK-3ZbtX4oRFdSkZsqAeDFe9Ef-iidISt_fugLVkSGaM3umEIek1FjmwFN87mjt3PIxR_94frmdrVBUlu96owWTlgu76N1B/s1747/2022-07-29%20(1).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="904" data-original-width="1747" height="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9LcAiLGCWtfEaWe5_xxc8c0zpU-7Zl4N_czOHZo6vFI4s94fnDfmx-RKXpKw53Z-5dFlMVI-T_wQ-Tc0zQC00fcf24pK-3ZbtX4oRFdSkZsqAeDFe9Ef-iidISt_fugLVkSGaM3umEIek1FjmwFN87mjt3PIxR_94frmdrVBUlu96owWTlgu76N1B/w464-h241/2022-07-29%20(1).png" width="464" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-86980851762398390582022-07-03T01:20:00.004-07:002022-07-03T01:20:25.523-07:00Anglo-Corsican KingdomAnglo-Corsican Kingdom was a client state of the Kingdom of Great Britain that existed on the island of Corsica between 1794 and 1796. <br /><br />Charlemagne conquers Corsica in 774 AD and incorporates it into the Holy Roman Empire. It remains under Frankish control, with brief interludes of Lombard rule until the end of the 11th century. <br /><br />The island declared independence in 1755, before being conquered by France 14 years later in 1769, who had bought the island from the Genoese in 1767. This purchase, an illegitimate act in the eyes of the Corsican Republic, is validated in the Treaty of Versailles of 1768. <br /><br />The son of Giacinto Paoli, Pasquale followed his father into exile at Naples in 1739, studying at the military academy there and preparing to continue the fight for Corsican independence. After Genoa sold its claims to France, he was forced to flee to England in 1769. Appointed lieutenant general and military commandant during the French Revolution, Pasquale returned to Corsica in July 1790. <br /><br />In December of 1793, the young General Bonaparte defeated the coalition army in Toulon, the British fleet refuged from the port, on the board with hundreds of royalists, and the remains of the British army. They needed a port, urgently. At the same time, the island of Corsica revolted against the French jacobinians. So, Corsica needed a helpful great power. <br /><br />Pasquale led the fight for independence and, with British naval support, expelled the French in 1794. In the spring of 1794, the island of Corsica united with Great Britain and the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom is established. <br /><br />The British turn to Corsica as a base of operations to counteract what they saw as the dangerous and unstable presence of the French in the Western Mediterranean. <br /><br />For British, Corsica seemed to offer the strategic and diplomatic possibilities that Britain was seeking: its port of Sam Fiorenzo was 100 miles from Nice and Genoa, while Cape Corso was only 60 miles from Leghorn, one of the greatest centers of British trade in the Mediterranean. <br /><br />After two years, in 1796, however, the British pull-out and French rule resume. In 1814, as the Napoleonic Wars come to an end, Corsica is occupied by British troops but is returned to France once the monarchy has been restored.<br /><b>Anglo-Corsican Kingdom<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisnznQjYdx50zt0jJ7xIAbQ5upZl1bmbLOLg63vVoI2wPPLNn2SxOBpBQ2w_j2pPRCaP1MWRc1c0wdQhq40lbD3ZjShG6CWs28nQRot1VaKxpWUBZ9owi-UrsNJQhJIu7vAkLC6VtnDyOO1DmILo4iF1NvHSDFNTYAtwttgMTTihwcABXd0V5N-8ja/s399/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="297" data-original-width="399" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisnznQjYdx50zt0jJ7xIAbQ5upZl1bmbLOLg63vVoI2wPPLNn2SxOBpBQ2w_j2pPRCaP1MWRc1c0wdQhq40lbD3ZjShG6CWs28nQRot1VaKxpWUBZ9owi-UrsNJQhJIu7vAkLC6VtnDyOO1DmILo4iF1NvHSDFNTYAtwttgMTTihwcABXd0V5N-8ja/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-88636251421249883392022-05-24T08:35:00.001-07:002022-05-24T08:35:09.228-07:00History of Danone food company Isaac Carasso, a Salonica-born Sephardic Jewish doctor from the Ottoman Empire, lives in Barcelona in the 1910s. He observes that many Spanish children suffer from intestinal infection. <br /><br />In 1919, Isaac Carasso created a simple food with a simple aim to improve health: mixing ferments and fresh milk, he made a yogurt that he affectionately named ‘Danone’ after his son, Daniel Carasso. <br /><br />He was inspired by the immunologist Elie Metchnikoff’s research at the Institut Pasteur into the role of ferments in gut and overall health. Isaac Carasso added lactic ferments to the yogurt, whose health benefits had been demonstrated. The yogurt was packaged in porcelain pots, which Isaac Carasso began to sell “Danone” yogurt to pharmacies in 1919. <br /><br />One decade later, Daniel joined the family business and successfully expanded Danone across France. He creates the brand’s first advertising slogan: “Delicious and healthy, Danone yogurt is the right dessert for happy, healthy digestion.” Danone pioneers its message of bringing together enjoyment and health. <br /><br />In the late 1930s, with Europe once again on the brink of war, he decided to move to the United States. Daniel had to adapt Danone’s model to survive in America. He rebranded Danone to Dannon to avoid alienating the American market. He also developed a new financial model, where consumers paid a 3-cents deposit for the half-pint glass that the yoghurt was sold in. <br /><br />In 1951, Daniel Carasso returned to Paris to manage the family's businesses in France and Spain, and the American business was sold to Beatrice Foods in 1959; it was repurchased by Danone in 1981. <br /><br />In Europe in 1967, Danone merged with Gervais, the leading fresh cheese producer in France, and became Gervais Danone. <br /><br />In 1973, BSN merged with Gervais Danone, a French food and beverage group specialized in dairy and pasta products, becoming the largest food and beverage group in France. <br /><br />In 1994, BSN changed its name to Groupe Danone, adopting the name of the group’s best-known international brand and from 2000 on, they sold all their beer companies and, later they also left some activities like sauces and cereals in order to focus on more healthy production. <br /><br />In the early 1990s, Danone made international growth a major priority by penetrating new markets in locations such as China and Eastern Europe by acquiring well-known brands in their respective countries such as China’s ‘Amoy’, a producer of soy sauces and frozen foods.<br /><b>History of Danone food company<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicNwFgUif3_e4U5un-AQHF3nXau0Ag0kqZJ0__PhJPorZaA9Sag0FX9QPSujU4o5fUvD0UXbUTw27myAwiOwLUS4Dfm86iaaGZuGWRyRzgSY2m6S5UYHXpleO1ZkaQ-_GKurYmoQ2EbUQIHjKLDE_7NhZFRzZB_SAIGouzwufbVIRaY4xBsM0zIzhs/s750/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="436" data-original-width="750" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicNwFgUif3_e4U5un-AQHF3nXau0Ag0kqZJ0__PhJPorZaA9Sag0FX9QPSujU4o5fUvD0UXbUTw27myAwiOwLUS4Dfm86iaaGZuGWRyRzgSY2m6S5UYHXpleO1ZkaQ-_GKurYmoQ2EbUQIHjKLDE_7NhZFRzZB_SAIGouzwufbVIRaY4xBsM0zIzhs/w464-h270/1.jpg" width="464" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-9907420528378350292022-03-29T19:05:00.006-07:002022-03-29T19:05:31.099-07:00History of wines in ancient GreeceThe only drinks that were available to the Greeks in antiquity were water, wine, milk, and fruit juice. The Greeks preferred to drink from small, shallow cups rather than large and deep ones. Wine was the most popular manufactured drink in the ancient Mediterranean. The oldest known wine fermented from grapes dates back 7000 years to small Neolithic village called Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. <br /><br />The recorded history of wine in Ancient Greece begins around the 15th century BC, while viticulture appears to have existed as early as in the Neolithic era, 6,500 years ago. <br /><br />Vines were being cultivated by 2500 BC on Crete and in mainland Greece too. In the Mycenaean and Minoan cultures of the 2nd millennium BC, on the Greek mainland and on Crete respectively, wine remain an elite drink. It is not listed in ration tablets for slave workers or lower-ranking religious officials. The Greek’s were very good at wine making and so they would trade the wine with their neighbors and now countries like France, Italy, Russia and more have many different wines all because of the people from Ancient Greek times. <br /><br />Wine was so entrenched in the culture that during the Late Archaic Period (525-480 B.C.), it is thought that up to 60% of the dishes in a typical Athenian home were designed for drinking wine communally. Wine served important religious, social and medical purposes in Greek society. The "feast of the wine" was a festival in Mycenaean Greece celebrating the "month of the new wine. Several festivals were held throughout the year in honor of the God of wine. February's Anthesteria marked the opening of the wine jars from the previous autumn harvest, featuring wine-drinking contests and a procession through Athens carrying wine jars. <br /><br />The ancients knew full well the value of fine wines and distinguished their production between new young wines for the masses or armies in the field and more mature wines for the connoisseur. All men were able to experience the reduced inhibitions, greater relaxation, and enhanced social interactions (including sexual relations) that accompanied wine drinking. <br /><br />The Greeks established the first great male drinking clubs, called symposia, in which wealthy men came together to converse and consume wine. At symposia, male citizens would gather for dinner, drinking, conversation, music, and entertainment. <br /><br />They would engage in jokes and games, recite poetry, and watch professional musicians and dancers. Greek women were allowed to participate only as accessories, as musicians, servers, or prostitutes. Greeks believed that women had a predilection for drunkenness and excess and therefore frowned on female drinking. <br /><br />According to their custom the Greeks mixed five parts water and two parts wine and sometimes added honey and salt water as flavoring. Getting drunk was looked down upon generally and those that did not mix their wine with water were seen as alcoholics and by that virtue, barbaric. <br /><br />Wine was almost always diluted, usually with water or snow when the wine was to be served cold. The Greeks believed that only barbarians drank unmixed or undiluted wine and that the Spartan King Cleomenes I was once driven insane after drinking wine this way. <br /><br />Ancient Greek writers referred to wine as ‘sweet’, ‘dry’ or ‘sour’. There were white wines and black wines. Sour wines were most likely produced with unripe grapes and had heightened acidity. Sweet and dry wines were exactly like wines today made with either white or red wine grapes. <br /><br />In classical Greece wines were drunk young and most were probably vinegary. To counter the acid taste, a variety of methods were employed. Greeks learned that air speeds up the spoiling process. Amphorae had narrow necks to reduce the contact of wine with air, and they were kept tightly stoppered. <br /><br />The Greek god of wine probably received wine by amphora an earthenware jug that held the equivalent of about 4 bottles of wine. To drink wine, more than likely, Dionysus used a decorated rhyton, a horn-shaped cup made of horn, bronze, gold or clay. Because air could penetrate earthenware surfaces, the Greeks line their amphorae with resin. This preserved wine for use in commerce. <br /><br />The medicinal use of wine was frequently studied by the Greeks, including Hippocrates, who did extensive research on the topic. He used wine as a cure for fevers, to ease convalescence and as an antiseptic. <br /><br />The Athenian doctor Mnesitheos (4th century BC), skilled in treatments with wine, made an observation: “Black wine is the most nutritious, white is the most diuretic and the lightest, claret wine is dry and makes for better digestion”. <br /><br />Aretaeus of Cappadocia (1st century AD) recommends light wines for heart disease and advises against the richer wines.<br /><b>History of wines in ancient Greece<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXx_GPWPz-Rj65bYQOSDLtFZztlHmrAhCel8Tw5tcgHYbJ-VJpsP2Cvuz29XNPz9eWGm3VTetcBIyHhvca0KdzVMTjUBH2kZXLjbr5vFS4plHsMwE0c_QPw7kiBalE83gHRdAG7WvzzMCLXF0aZi5drWbxKQ370cOO9UHYWugGEWAzjAOjotB7aMvj/s397/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="251" data-original-width="397" height="289" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXx_GPWPz-Rj65bYQOSDLtFZztlHmrAhCel8Tw5tcgHYbJ-VJpsP2Cvuz29XNPz9eWGm3VTetcBIyHhvca0KdzVMTjUBH2kZXLjbr5vFS4plHsMwE0c_QPw7kiBalE83gHRdAG7WvzzMCLXF0aZi5drWbxKQ370cOO9UHYWugGEWAzjAOjotB7aMvj/w458-h289/1.jpg" width="458" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-23106695919544477072022-03-05T03:14:00.004-08:002022-03-05T03:14:34.922-08:00Corinthian War: Spartan vs Coalition of four allied states (395–387 BC)In 404 BC a Spartan led alliance that included Thebes and Corinth had finally defeated Athens, ending the Great Peloponnesian War. Sparta's domineering attitude soured its relations with its allies, and in 399 BC the Spartan–Persian alliance collapsed. <br /><br />Athens was forced to dismantle her walls, lost her empire, was only allowed a tiny fleet and the democracy was dismantled. For a brief time, Sparta became the dominant Greek naval power, although most of her ships came from allies. <br /><br />King Agesilaus and Lysander (the admiral who had been responsible for Athens' defeat) started Sparta's reign as hegemon with lots of support from the other Greek city-states. <br /><br />However, Sparta claimed all of the plunder from the Peloponnesian War and it had totally disregarded the wishes and interests of her allies. Sparta had pursued a policy of aggressive expansion in the Peloponnese, central and northern Greece and the Aegean which had at times seemed directed specifically against them. <br /><br />In 394 BC coalition of four allied states coalition of four allied states. assemble near Corinth. They sought to destroy the ascendancy of Sparta after its victory in the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War, an ancient Greek conflict was lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states; Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos; which were initially backed by Persia. The name called Corinthian War (395–386) because much of it took place on Corinthian territory. <br /><br />The war was fought on two fronts, on land near Corinth and Thebes and at sea in the Aegean. Sparta had two land victories over Athenian allied states and a severe naval defeat at Cnidus by a combined Athenian and Persian fleet. <br /><br />Virtually Spartan’s entire fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Cnidus, leaving Athens and Persia in control of the seas. This brought about an effective stalemate, although skirmishes, intrigue, plotting, and counter-plotting preceded apace. <br /><br />Sparta eventually won the war, but only after the Persians had switched support from Athens to Sparta. <br /><br />With its powerful ally as guarantor, Sparta was able to dictate the terms of the so‐called King's Peace in 386 BC. This treaty declared that Persia would control all of Ionia, and proclaimed that all other Greek cities would be "autonomous", in effect prohibiting Greek cities from forming leagues, alliances or coalitions. Sparta was to be the guardian of the peace.<br /><b>Corinthian War: Spartan vs Coalition of four allied states (395–387 BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhblxPosZx185YFt6l7PF2cExqMHId3AdxnRXCZGHRO8GSucJ-kz3abZxxkreeycVd2UEZnuKDWl1WvvA3SkT6SI3wKmtbTL9Rl4KUoo9hrsvYnvybYFaFhwSk7UMn5HvwtU84jnbL6TVdmvD5OyXINGH0M3spqg0TdNKSMNr1wzUD9BJfj5TgOXxSO=s350" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="350" data-original-width="251" height="425" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhblxPosZx185YFt6l7PF2cExqMHId3AdxnRXCZGHRO8GSucJ-kz3abZxxkreeycVd2UEZnuKDWl1WvvA3SkT6SI3wKmtbTL9Rl4KUoo9hrsvYnvybYFaFhwSk7UMn5HvwtU84jnbL6TVdmvD5OyXINGH0M3spqg0TdNKSMNr1wzUD9BJfj5TgOXxSO=w304-h425" width="304" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1899285466539283510.post-12281168653085453512022-01-28T06:47:00.001-08:002022-01-28T06:47:03.936-08:00Iberian Peninsula civilization The name <i>Iberia</i> is of Greek origin (Iβερια): the name the ancient Greeks used for the westernmost land they knew in the Mediterranean. Iberian Peninsula is principally divided between Spain and Portugal, comprising most of their territory, as well as a small area of Southern France, Andorra and Gibraltar. <br /><br />The oldest known human DNA in Iberia comes from a 19,000-year-old skeleton found in 2010 in a cave called El Mirón, in northern Spain. People in Iberia continued to live as hunter-gatherers for thousands of years after that, long after the end of the Ice Age. <br /><br />Manuel Gongora in 1861 suggested that the Iberian Peninsula had been inhabited as a result of a migratory wave of Iberian groups (who originated form the east) and subsequent invasion of Celts tribes across the Pyrenees (who succeeded in dominating the Iberian communities that they encountered). The merging of these two communities in the Iberian Peninsula, led to the formation of the Celtiberian ethnic group. <br /><br />However, according to Lasalde in 1879, these were the Celts who first settled in the peninsula. They were followed by several other invasions by Galicians, Iberians and Bastetani, who pushed the existing populations further to the center of the Peninsula. <br /><br />In the south, Iberian culture is influenced by civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean through trade and colonies established first by the Phoenicians, and later the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. <br /><br />The existence in Iberia of an agrarian society that was already well developed during the Roman domination and surely profoundly transformed large parts of the territory. <br /><br />The silver trade brought Greek and Phoenician settlers to the peninsula, where, by the time of the Romans, they had already urbanized the coastline at, places like Cadiz, Toscanos, and Ampurias. <br /><br />Much evidence suggests that Iberian religion encompassed many characteristics of Mediterranean religion. The symbols of suns moons and stars can be found in “solar and lunar cults in islands and on capes. Animal worship was also an important part of early Iberian religion. The Cult of the bull was found in Iberia in Balearic and Andalusian sanctuaries. <br /><br />Phoenicians from the Near East built trading ports there 3,000 years ago, and Romans conquered the region around 200 B.C. Muslim armies sailed from North Africa and took control of Iberia in 711, they crossed the strait, which so far had been called the Pillars of Hercules but thereafter was called the strait of Gibraltar. <br /><br />They seized the country and occupied the major part of the territory in the first centuries of their domination period. The Islamic civilization in Spain encompasses many fields that left a profound imprint in the Iberian Peninsula and Europe. The cultural climate of Spain in the era of Muslim rule (711-1492) brought about a prospering of different aspects of science and culture. Numerous schools and libraries were established and books were procured due to which the majority of the people were literate. Literature and art flourished. <br /><br />After a few centuries, their domination area was progressively reduced until their presence in Iberia was ended. This happened almost eight centuries after they entered in the Peninsula; it ended when the last Muslim kingdom of Granada was conquered by Castile in 1492.<br /><b>Iberian Peninsula civilization<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgakw38gVkLxJXt3wBrDKlE3wMj3DcItMqj0utLgSUxuUr8K41qFiTjA9_b1vcx3gg4sIdEu55N-hDK-xKth8RWUAO1fL_tpxIENlxgGooAXGDCMSUZbdEo2hiAJ0ab7DDswJaVoTJXK3wWbDNcPtWldqU6kOIM4ok4lLg1mzHlektI58JN5DlpKx0K=s1172" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="846" data-original-width="1172" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgakw38gVkLxJXt3wBrDKlE3wMj3DcItMqj0utLgSUxuUr8K41qFiTjA9_b1vcx3gg4sIdEu55N-hDK-xKth8RWUAO1fL_tpxIENlxgGooAXGDCMSUZbdEo2hiAJ0ab7DDswJaVoTJXK3wWbDNcPtWldqU6kOIM4ok4lLg1mzHlektI58JN5DlpKx0K=w431-h311" width="431" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com